Voter turnout in direct democracy: A joint analysis of individual, referendum and community factors

In the context of an ever growing importance and usage referendums around globe, this article provides a comprehensive approach to analyse determinants participation in direct democratic votes. absence conclusive empirical evidence about which factors drive participation, studies tend adopt election-specific findings assume electoral turnout equally apply for referendums. Yet, strict test these numerous referendum is still missing. By examining aspects stemming from both referendum-specific contexts, aims first applicability common theories second relevance each factor when simultaneously examined with other contextual individual factors. This holistic represents reality as adequate possible, that is, consider various may influence decision vote. Next variables, analysis particularly focuses on two levels, community person lives linked given referendum. The discussion joint competing addresses problem underspecified models, commonly prevents detailed assessment relative turnout. study uses registered data canton Geneva, Switzerland, official information across 43 45 communities. We match referendum-related factors, such campaign intensity issues at stake, community-level wealth urbanization. results our multilevel, cross-classified models show significant context-related effects, mainly less level. Still, main driver determinants, particular citizens' past record.